Unit VI Exam Question Preview

Question #1
In Pavlov's experiments, the dog's salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was a(n)

Question #2'
Skinner is to shaping as Bandura is to

Question #3
Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)

Question #4
It's easier to train a pigeon to peck a disk for a food reward than to flap its wings for a food reward.  This illustrates the importance of _______________ in learning.

Question #5
After prolonged exposure to television violence, viewers became more indifferent to violence when later viewing a brawl, whether on TV or in real life.  This finding best illustrates

Question #6
Conditioning is the process of

Question #7
B.F. Skinner's work elaborated what E.L. Thorndike had called

Question #8
The first experimental studies of associative learning were conducted by

Question #9
Long after being bitten by a stray dog, Alonzo found that his fear of dogs seemed to have disappeared.  To his surprise, however, when he was recently confronted by a stray dog, he experienced a sudden twinge of anxiety.  This sudden anxiety best illustrates

Question #10
Because Mr. Baron demonstrates appreciation only for very good classroom answers, his students have stopped participating in class.  Mr. Baron most clearly needs to be informed of the value of

Unit VI Outline

I. How Do We Learn?

-Learning-A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience

-Habituation-An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

-Associative Learning-Learning that certain events occur together.  Two stimuli?

-Response and Consequences?

II. Classical Conditioning

-Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

-Laid the foundation for John B. Watson

-Behaviorism (Objective Science/Studies behavior without reference to mental processes)

-Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning by which all organisms adapt to their environment

A. Pavlov’s Experiments

-Medical degree at 33

-Earned Russia’s first Nobel Prize in 1904 for research on digestion

-Harnessed the dog

-Apparatus for capturing saliva

-Paired neutral events with the delivery of food

-Tone, buzzer, light, touch on the leg, and sight of a circle

-Unconditioned Response-(UR) Food in the mouth

-Unconditioned Stimulus-(US) Salivation

-Conditioned Response-(CR) The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

-Conditioned Stimulus-(CS) Originally irrelevant stimulus that comes to trigger a conditioned response

i. Acquisition

-How much time must lapse between the neutral stimulus and the US?

-NOT MUCH

-Conditioning doesn’t happen when the CS follows the US

-Deer in the forest

-Dogs with their food

-Higher Order Conditioning-Adding a light to the tone… 

ii. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

-Continuous sounding of the tone without paring it with presentation of food resulted in less salivation

-Extinction suppresses the CR but doesn’t eliminate it

iii. Generalization

-Generalization-The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

-Cars, Truck, Motorcycles

iv. Discrimination

-Discrimination-In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

-A guard dog may frighten you while a guide dog may not…

B. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

-Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance of cognitive processes

-Thoughts, perceptions, expectations

-Also underestimated biological constraints on an organisms learning

i. Cognitive Processes

-Animals can learn the predictability of an event…

-Higher order conditioning (Tone and Light with rat)

-Dogs in harness-learned helplessness

ii. Biological Predispositions

-Species are predisposed to learn associations that enhance survival

-Taste aversion

C. Pavlov’s Legacy

-WHY DO WE CARE?!?!?!?!

-Every species tested can be classically conditioned

-Showed how learning could be studied objectively

i. Applications of Classical Conditioning

-John B. Watson and Little Albert

III. Operant Conditioning

-Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning

-Respondent behavior-Automatic responses to stimuli

-Operant behavior-Behaviors followed by rewards increase.  Behaviors followed by punishments decrease.

A. Skinner’s Experiments

-Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect-behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

-Operant chamber (skinner box)

i. Shaping Behavior

-Shaping-A procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

ii. Types of Reinforcers

-Reinforcer-Anything that strengthens the behavior it follows

-Positive Reinforcement-Increases behavior by presenting a positive stimuli

-Negative Reinforcement-Increases behavior by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (NOT PUNISHMENT!)

a. Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers

-Primary Reinforcer-An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

-Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer-A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association

b. Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers

-Rats do not respond to delayed reinforcers, but humans do…  Sometimes…

-A little now or a lot later?

iii. Reinforcement Schedules

-Continuous vs Intermittent

-Fixed-Ratio: Coffee Shop

-Variable-Ratio: Slot Machine

-Fixed-Interval: Checking the Mail at Delivery Time

-Variable-Interval: Checking for Email Randomly

iv. Punishment

-Reinforcement increases a behavior, punishment does the opposite

-Positive Punishment and Negative Punishment

-Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten

-Punishment teaches discrimination

-Punishment can teach fear

-Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression

B. Extending Skinner’s Understanding

i. Cognition and Operant Conditioning

-Skinner died in 1990

-Believed thoughts and emotions were behaviors that are learned

a. Latent Learning

-A rat exploring a maze

-Developed a cognitive map

-Latent learning-only becomes apparent when there is some incentive to demonstrate what was learned

b. Insight Learning

-The light bulb turning on!

-Even after puzzling for a long time, sometimes we are struck with the solution

c. Intrinsic Motivation

-Excessive rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation

-The desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

-Intrinsic vs Extrinsic

ii. Biological Predispositions

-Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive

-Instinctive drift…

C. Skinner’s Legacy

-Insisted that external influences shaped behavior

-Are reinforcers more humane than punishments?

-School?

-At Home?

-In Prisons?

i. Applications of Operant Conditioning

a. At School

-According to Skinner…

-Computers or Robots might make the best teachers

-Allowing students to work at their own pace through the material

-Gives immediate feedback

b. In Sports

-Putting in golf

-Small victories important

-5 yards, 10 yards, 15 yards

-Small incremental increases

c. At Work

-Rewards increase productivity

-Stocks

-IBM-Thomas Watson-Wrote checks on the spot for a job well done

d. At Home

-Notice something right

-Affirmation is key!

-Attention and reinforcers when behaving well, not just punishment

e. For Self-Improvement

-State your goal

-Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior

-Reinforce the desired behavior

-Reduce the rewards gradually

D. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

-Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination…

-Respondent vs Operant

IV. Learning by Observation

-Social learning

-Imitation

-Modeling

-Catch phrases, clothing styles, food, vices, fads

A. Mirrors in the Brain

-Mirror Neurons-Frontal lobe neurons  that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.  This mirroring may enable imitation.

-Theory of Mind-Ability to empathize

B. Bandura’s Experiments

-Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiments

-1^st room

-2^nd room

-3^rd room

C. Applications of Observational Learning

-We look, we learn

-Job training

i. Prosocial Effects

-Ghandi

-MLK Jr.

-“Do as I say, not as I do…”

-Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

ii. Antisocial Effects

-Lessons learned are not easily forgotten

-Violence in film and video games

-Correlation vs Causation

Unit VI Vocabulary List

Don't forget to keep up with your reading!  Your Unit VI vocabulary will be due on test day, which is scheduled for November 2.  Please remember to number your terms as they are numbered here!!!    These terms must be hand written!!!  There are 44 terms, so START NOW!!!

1. Learning
2. Habituation
3. Associative Learning
4. Classical Conditioning
5. Behaviorism
6. Unconditioned Response
7. Unconditioned Stimulus
8. Conditioned Response
9. Conditioned Stimulus
10. Acquisition
11. Higher-Order Conditioning
12. Extinction
13. Spontaneous Recovery
14. Generalization
15. Discrimination
16. Learned Helplessness
17. Respondent Behavior
18. Operant Conditioning
19. Operant Behavior
20. Law of Effect
21. Operant Chamber
22. Shaping
23. Discriminative Stimulus
24. Reinforcer
25. Positive Reinforcement
26. Negative Reinforcement
27. Primary Reinforcer
28. Conditioned Reinforcer
29. Continuous Reinforcement
30. Partial Reinforcement
31. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
32. Variable-Ratio Schedule
33. Fixed-Interval Schedule
34. Variable-Interval Schedule
35. Punishment
36. Cognitive Map
37. Latent Learning
38. Insight
39. Intrinsic Motivation
40. Extrinsic Motivation
41. Observational Learning
42. Modeling
43. Mirror Neurons
44. Prosocial Behavior

Unit IV Exam Question Preview

As promised...

Question #1
As you look at an apple, its reflected light travels to the eye.  The rods and cones absorb the light and help transmit the information to the brain.  This process best illustrates........

Question #2
The process of receiving and representing stimulus energies by the nervous system is called........

Question #3
Patients' negative expectations about the outcome of a surgical procedure can increase their postoperative experience of pain.  This best illustrates the importance of........

Question #4
The effect of prior experience and current expectations on perception best illustrates the importance of........

Question #5
Bottom-up processing involves analysis that begins with the........

Question #6
As the retinal image of a horse galloping toward you becomes larger, it is unlikely that the horse will appear to grow larger.  This best illustrates the phenomenon of........

Question #7
The sequentially flashing Christmas tree lights appeared to generate pulsing waves of motion.  This best illustrates........

Question#8
Imagine your friend walking toward you in the hall at school.  As your friend gets closer, the image cast on your retina........

Question #9
Experiments with the visual cliff suggest that........

Question #10
The perceptual tendency to group together stimuli that are near each other is called........

Online Quizzes Part II

Your online quizzes must be taken by Monday.  As long as they are taken before midnight, they will not be considered late.  The Unit IV Vocabulary is DUE before you take your test, however.

Online Quizzes

http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/myersAP1e/default.asp#t_612492____

Follow the link above in order to register for your online quizzes.  Remember, they are DUE by Monday!!!

Unit IV Outline

I. Sensing the World: Some Basic Principles

-Sensation and Perception are one CONTINUOUS process

-Bottom-up vs Top-down processing

–Bottom-up: Beginning with sense receptors and working up to the brain

–Top-down: Beginning with higher level mental processes and constructing perceptions based on expectations

-Man on Horseback in Forest

-Bev Doolittle

-Let’s take another look…

-The Forest Has Eyes

-Bev Doolittle

-Man on Horse in Forest

-The Forest has Eyes

–Did a title difference change the way you viewed the painting?

-Frog- “bug detector”

-Male Silkworm- sensitivity to female scent

-Human- voice consonants and baby cry

A. Selective Attention

-A flashlight beam on an almost infinite canvas

-11,000,000 bits of information taken in every second

-Humans process about 40 of them

-That leaves 10,999,960 for your unconscious mind to work with

-Cocktail party effect (one voice among many)

i. Selective Attention and Accidents

-Texting and driving?

-Statistics show that even using a GPS greatly increases your risk for having an accident

ii. Selective Inattention

-Inattentional blindness

–While focusing on one task, we may miss some very important “stuff”

-Change blindness

–Most won’t notice a switch

-Change deafness (list of words)

-Pop-out phenomenon

-Some stimuli demand our attention, such as the one smiling face amidst a crowd of crying faces

B. Thresholds

-Visible and Audible spectrums

-Psychophysics-The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli (intensity of stimuli and our psychological experience of them)

i. Absolute Thresholds

-Candle at 30 miles

-Drop of perfume

-Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

-Absolute thresholds vary with age

ii. Signal Detection

-Signal Detection Theory-No absolute threshold

-Depends on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

          -Ability to catch a faint signal diminishes after 30 minutes

iii. Subliminal Stimulation

-Can we sense stimuli below our absolute threshold?

-Priming-negative image flashes vs positive image flashes

-Follow up images and participant response

-MIND OVER MATTER

iv. Difference Thresholds

-Just noticeable difference

-1 lb added to 10 lbs

-1 lb added to 100 lbs

C. Sensory Adaptation

-The smelly room that no longer smells

-After constant exposure, our nerve cells fire less frequently

-T-Rex vision-The ever moving eye

-Fast-paced movies vs slow-paced ones

II. Vision

-The eye receives light energy

-This light is transduced or transformed into a neural message

-Our brain processes what we are actually seeing

A. The Stimulus Input: Light Energy

-We don’t see color, we see light in different frequencies

-Wavelength-Distance from peak to peak on waves

-Hue-Dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

-Intensity-Brightness or loudness

B. The Eye

-Pupil

-Iris

-Lens

-Retina

-No singular image is projected on the back of the eye

-Millions of particles of light energy are transducted and reassembled by the brain

i. The Retina

-Rods-Detect black, white, and gray

-Cones-Detect color and well lighted areas

-Optic Nerve-Blind spot, no receptor cells

C. Visual Information Processing

-Retina’s Neural Layers

-Migrated brain tissue (not just a messenger)

-Encode and analyze

i. Feature Detection

-Much like frogs with “bug detector” cells, humans also have detector cells or centers

ii. Parallel Processing

-Color, Motion, Form, and Depth

-30% of the cortex required for facial recognition

D. Color Vision

-Is a tomato red?

-No.  It is everything BUT red

-It reflects red

-Humans can discriminate between 7,000,000 different colors

-Trichromatic theory (R,G,B)

-Three different types of receptors

-Color deficiency

D. Color Vision (cont)

-Opponent process theory

-Red and Green

-Blue and Yellow

-Black and White

III. Hearing

-Vision in the major sense

-Audition is highly adaptive

-Difference threshold with human voices

A. The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves

-The movement of air molecules

-Air pressure changes perceived as sound

-Low frequency and low pitch

-High frequency and high pitch

B. The Ear

-Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear

-EardrumàThrough the Middle EaràOval Window VibratesàFluid RipplesàHairs VibrateàAuditory NerveàTo the Brain

-A very complex process

-Damage to the hairs in the ear

-Carpet example

i. Perceiving Loudness

-The number of activated hair cells, not from the intensity of the response

ii. Perceiving Pitch

-Combination of 2 theories

-Place Theory-Links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

–Good for high pitches

-Frequency Theory-The rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone

–Volley principle

iii. Locating Sounds

-Stereophonic hearing (3-D)

-Sense of place

-Time lag between sounds reaching each ear

C. Hearing Loss and Deaf Culture

-Conduction Hearing Loss-mechanical damage

-Sensorineural Hearing Loss-damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells (nerve deafness)

-Cochlear Implant

IV. Other Senses

-Seeing and hearing have priority

-Touch

-Body position and movement

-Taste

-Smell

A. Touch

-Types of Touch

–Pressure

–Warmth

–Cold

–Pain

-Kinesthesis

-Vestibular Sense

B. Pain

i. Understanding Pain

-Bottom-up sensations

-Top-down processes

a. Biological Influences

-Not a simple neural cord running to a definable area in the brain

-Noriceptors (pressure, temperature, chemicals)

-Gate-Control Theory-Neurological gate within the spinal column (blocks or allows pain to pass)

-Phantom limbs

-The creation of pain

b. Psychological Influences

-Rubber hand illusion

-Perspiration and pain while bending the fingers

-Hand in cold water (60 seconds and 90 seconds)

-More net pain, but less at the end

c. Social-Cultural Influences

-Pain may be sympathetic

-Biopsychosocial

ii. Controlling Pain

-Physical methods

-Psychological methods

C. Taste

-Sweet, Sour, Salty, and Bitter

-Chemical sense

-Taste buds (200)

-Regenerate after a week or so

-Age and taste

i. Sensory Interaction

-Taste and smell

-A bad cold

-Hard of hearing with CC

-Synaesthesia-hearing sound may cause you to visualize color

-Seeing a number may evoke taste

D. Smell

-Chemical sense

-5 million receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity

-An old sense, bypasses the switchboard (thalamus)

V. Perceptual Organization

-When given a random set of data or sensations we organize them into a Gestalt (“whole” or “form”)

-The whole may exceed the sum of its parts

A. Form Perception

-How do we recognize faces?

-What abilities does this “simple” task require?

i. Figure and Ground

-Distinctiveness from an objects surrounding

-Continually reversing

-More than one perception

ii. Grouping

-Must organize info into meaningful form

-We must “group” stimulus together to extract form

-Proximity-We group nearby figures together

-Similarity-We group similar figures together.

-Continuity-We perceive smooth continuous patterns rather than discontinuous

-Connectedness-We perceive each set of two dots and a line as a single unit

-We fill in the gaps to complete the whole object

B. Depth Perception

-Seeing in 3D helps us judge distance

-Each species displayed depth perception abilities by the time they were mobile

i. Binocular Cues

-Our retinas receive slightly different images

-Comparing images allows us to perceive depth

-Allows filmmakers to produce a 3D effect

ii. Monocular Cues

-Taller than it is wide?

-Equal distance

-Vertical images appear to be taller than horizontal-vertical illusion

-Relative Height-We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away

-Relative Size-If we assume 2 objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away

-Interposition-If one object partially blocks our view of another we perceive it as closer

-Linear Perspective-Parallel lines such as railroad tracks appear to converge in the distance

-Relative Motion-As we move, objects that are stable may appear to move. 

-Light and Shadow-Shading produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above

C. Motion Perception

-Without the ability to perceive motion, life would be very difficult

-Stroboscopic Movement-Animation

-Phi Phenomenon-Lights on marquee signs are not actually moving, but only switching on and off

D. Perceptual Constancy

-Perceiving objects as unchanging

-We can recognize and identify people regardless of distance, angle of view, and illumination

HOMECOMING AND THE UNIT IV EXAM!!!

For those of you who live under a rock...  This week is Homecoming.  We will have a weird schedule on both Wednesday and Thursday...  SOOOO, there will be no Unit IV Exam this week!  We will combine Units IV and V for a 50 question exam.

THIS JUST IN...

I am finally to the point where online quizzes will be opened up!  I will hand out instructions tomorrow.

Unit IV Vocabulary List

Don't forget to keep up with your reading!  We may have a reading quiz soon...  Your Unit IV vocabulary will be due on test day, which is scheduled for October 12.  Please remember to number your terms as they are numbered here!!!  From now on I will not accept any form of typed vocabulary!  These terms must be hand written!!!  There are 63 terms, so START NOW!!!

1. Sensation
2. Perception
3. Bottom-Up Processing
4. Top-Down Processing
5. Selective Attention
6. Inattentional Blindness
7. Change Blindness
8. Psychophysics
9. Absolute Threshold
10. Signal Detection Theory
11. Subliminal
12. Priming
13. Difference Threshold
14. Weber's Law
15. Sensory Adaptation
16. Transduction
17. Wavelength
18. Hue
19. Intensity
20. Pupil
21. Iris
22. Lens
23. Retina
24. Accomodation
25. Rods
26. Cones
27. Optic Nerve
28. Blind Spot
29. Fovea
30. Feature Detectors
31. Parallel Processing
32. Yount-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
33. Opponent-Process Theory
34. Audition
35. Frequency
36. Pitch
37. Middle Ear
38. Cochlea
39. Inner Ear
40. Place Theory
41. Frequency Theory
42. Conduction Hearing Loss
43. Sensorineural Hearing Loss
44. Cochlear Implant
45. Kinesthesis
46. Vestibular Sense
47. Gate-Control Theory
48. Sensory Interaction
49. Gestalt
50. Figure-Around
51. Grouping
52. Depth Perception
53. Visual Cliff
54. Binocular Cues
55. Retinal Disparity
56. Monocular Cues
57. Phi Phenomenon
58. Perceptual Constancy
59. Color Constancy
60. Perceptual Adaptation
61. Perceptual Set
62. Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
63. Parapsychology

Unit IIIC Outline

I. Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences

-IF two super athletes

–Get married

–Have a kid

–The kid ends up being a super athlete

-Who gets credit?

-How much is nature?

-How much is nurture?

A. Genes: Our Codes for Life

-EVERY cell nucleus contains DNA

-46 Chromosomes

-23 from each parent

-Each chromosome is made up of DNA

-Small segments of DNA called Genes

-Active or Inactive

-96%-99.4% similarity

B. Twin and Adoption Studies

-Laboratory study would be unethical

-Twin studies allow us to study genetic similarities and environmental -differences and vice versa.

i. Identical Versus Fraternal Twins

-Identical twins-genetically identical (kind of)

-Same genes-different number of copies

-Most share a placenta, but some do not

-Fraternal twins-just siblings.  Genetically different

-Genes matter!!!  Divorce rate

ii. Separated Twins

-Jim Lewis and Jim Springer

-Oskar Stohr and Jack Yufe

-Anecdotal evidence?

-iii. Biological Versus Adoptive Relatives

-Genetic relatives (biological) vs environmental relatives (adoptive)

-In personality traits, adoptees are more like their parents (biological)

-Attitudes, values, manners, faith, and politics

C. Heritability

-Genetic influence explains 50% of the observed variation among people…

-NOT 50% genetic 50% environment…

i. Group Differences

-Heritable differences between individuals does not imply heritable group differences

-Peaceful Scandinavians or Ruthless Vikings

ii. Nature and Nurture

-Influence of adaptation (shoes or no shoes)

-Genes and environment go hand in hand (African butterfly)

-Alcoholism-Heritability doesn’t mean inevitability

D. Gene-Environment Interaction

-It takes two to tango…

-Neither genetics or experience solely account for behavior

E. The New Frontier: Molecular Genetics

-Seeking out specific genes that influence behavior

-No single “obesity” gene

-Location of multiple genes that “trigger” certain behaviors

-Prenatal DNA scans in China

II. Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding Human Nature

-Evolutionary Psych

-What makes us so alike as humans

-Darwin

-Competition for survival

-Biological and behavioral

A. Natural Selection and Adaptation

-Domestication of animals (the fox)

-More than 30 generations of mating the top 5% tamest

B. Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities

     -95% of genetic variation exists within populations

i. Outdated Tendencies

-The need for sweets and fats…

-Hard to come by in ancient times, not so hard now

-Biological tendencies from the past are harming us today

ii. Evolutionary Psychology Today

-Infants and fear of strangers at walking age

-Biological fathers less likely to harm their children

-Phobias about guns and electricity?

-Universal thought?  Collective unconsciousness

C. An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality

-Men and women are very similar!

-Adaptation was different

i. Gender Differences in Sexuality

-Men have a stronger sex drive

-Misattribution of friendliness as sexual interest

ii. Natural Selection and Mating Preferences

-Survival of the “fittest”

-What is considered “attractive”

-Science shows that both men and women have specific desires

D. Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective

-Backwards reasoning is dangerous

ATTENTION!!!

Monday's test has officially been moved to Tuesday.  ALL of the Unit III vocabulary will be due on test day.  This test is likely to be a monster (probably 75 questions).  Make sure that you have gone over the progress tests that I handed out on Friday.