I. The Need For Psychological Science
-Psychology isn’t just common sense…
-Pop Psych and Psychobabble
-Unconscious vs Conscious thought
-Humans often run on “autopilot”
-Our “gut” feelings are often wrong
-“The first principle is that you must not fool yourself, and you are the easiest person to fool.”
-Psychology isn’t just common sense…
-Pop Psych and Psychobabble
-Unconscious vs Conscious thought
-Humans often run on “autopilot”
-Our “gut” feelings are often wrong
-“The first principle is that you must not fool yourself, and you are the easiest person to fool.”
A. Did We Know it All Along? Hindsight Bias
-Bull’s eye after the arrow
-9/11 and the war in Iraq
-“Out of sight, out of mind”
-“Absence makes the heart grow fonder”
-Bull’s eye after the arrow
-9/11 and the war in Iraq
-“Out of sight, out of mind”
-“Absence makes the heart grow fonder”
B. Overconfidence
-When paired with hindsight bias, overconfidence can lead us to overestimate our own intuition
-Unscramble the following anagrams…
-How long do you think it will take you?
-WREAT
-Water
-ETRYN
-Entry
-GRABE
-Barge
-Most people take an average of 3 minutes per anagram…
-60% of the time, it works every time
-When paired with hindsight bias, overconfidence can lead us to overestimate our own intuition
-Unscramble the following anagrams…
-How long do you think it will take you?
-WREAT
-Water
-ETRYN
-Entry
-GRABE
-Barge
-Most people take an average of 3 minutes per anagram…
-60% of the time, it works every time
C. The Scientific Attitude
-The Amazing Randii
-Testing those who see auras…
-Three main components to the scientific attitude
-Curious eagerness
-Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas
-Open-minded humility before nature
-The Amazing Randii
-Testing those who see auras…
-Three main components to the scientific attitude
-Curious eagerness
-Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas
-Open-minded humility before nature
D. Critical Thinking
-“Smart thinking”
-Examine assumptions
-Discern hidden values
-Assess conclusions
-“Smart thinking”
-Examine assumptions
-Discern hidden values
-Assess conclusions
II. How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
-The scientific attitude is a must, but scientific method allows us to answer questions thoroughly
-Evaluation of competing ideas with OBSERVATIONS and ANALYSIS
-The scientific attitude is a must, but scientific method allows us to answer questions thoroughly
-Evaluation of competing ideas with OBSERVATIONS and ANALYSIS
A. The Scientific Method
-Theories are more than hunches
-Theories must be linked with observation
-Theory-An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
-A good theory must produce testable predictions…
-Hypothesis-A testable prediction often implied by a theory
-Directs research
-Operational definitions are VITAL for replication to be possible
-A good theory is useful if it
-Effectively organizes a range of self reports and observations
-Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory
-Theories are more than hunches
-Theories must be linked with observation
-Theory-An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
-A good theory must produce testable predictions…
-Hypothesis-A testable prediction often implied by a theory
-Directs research
-Operational definitions are VITAL for replication to be possible
-A good theory is useful if it
-Effectively organizes a range of self reports and observations
-Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory
B. Description
-The starting point of any science is description!!!
-Must be objective and systematic
-The starting point of any science is description!!!
-Must be objective and systematic
i The Case Study
-Studies one individual in depth
-Ex.-Studies of people with damaged portions of the brain
-Ex. Jean Piaget learned broad truths about childhood development from studying a few children
-Must be cautious!!!
-Suggest further study
-Cannot discern general truths
-Studies one individual in depth
-Ex.-Studies of people with damaged portions of the brain
-Ex. Jean Piaget learned broad truths about childhood development from studying a few children
-Must be cautious!!!
-Suggest further study
-Cannot discern general truths
ii The Survey
-Studies many cases in depth
-Estimates from a representative sample
-We must ask questions in a careful manner if we want good results!
-Studies many cases in depth
-Estimates from a representative sample
-We must ask questions in a careful manner if we want good results!
a. Wording Effects
-Wording matters!!!
-Should cigarette ads or pornography be allowed on television?
-“not allowed”
-“forbidden”
-“censored”
-27% approve of “government censorship” while 66% approve of “more restrictions”
-Wording matters!!!
-Should cigarette ads or pornography be allowed on television?
-“not allowed”
-“forbidden”
-“censored”
-27% approve of “government censorship” while 66% approve of “more restrictions”
b. Random Sampling
-Sample must be representative of the population or our results are not reliable
-How could we poll the student body at PC West most efficiently?
-Sample must be representative of the population or our results are not reliable
-How could we poll the student body at PC West most efficiently?
iii Naturalistic Observation
-Observing behavior in the natural environment
-Watching chimps in the wild
-Recording and watching interactions
-Humans laugh 30 times more when in social situations
-Observing behavior in the natural environment
-Watching chimps in the wild
-Recording and watching interactions
-Humans laugh 30 times more when in social situations
C. Correlation
-When one trait or behavior is related to another
-Correlation coefficient-A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
-+1 being a perfect positive correlation
--1 being a perfect negative correlation
-When one trait or behavior is related to another
-Correlation coefficient-A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
-+1 being a perfect positive correlation
--1 being a perfect negative correlation
i Correlation and Causation
-Calculating correlation allows us to predict only!
-It does not imply cause and effect
-Calculating correlation allows us to predict only!
-It does not imply cause and effect
ii Illusory Correlation
-Comes from our need to make sense out of the world
-Coin flip
-Poker hand
-Comes from our need to make sense out of the world
-Coin flip
-Poker hand
D. Experimentation
-Experiment-A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes
-Can isolate cause and effect
-Control of factors
-Manipulation of the factor(s) of interest
-Hold constant (“controlling”) factors
-Experiment-A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes
-Can isolate cause and effect
-Control of factors
-Manipulation of the factor(s) of interest
-Hold constant (“controlling”) factors
i Random Assignment
-Random assignment
-Eliminates alternative explanations
-Different from random sample
-Single Blind
-Double Blind
-Placebo Effect
-Experimental Group-Receives the treatment (independent variable)
-Control Group-Does not receive the treatment
-Random assignment
-Eliminates alternative explanations
-Different from random sample
-Single Blind
-Double Blind
-Placebo Effect
-Experimental Group-Receives the treatment (independent variable)
-Control Group-Does not receive the treatment
ii Independent and Dependent Variables
-Independent Variable-The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
-Dependent Variable-the outcome factor the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
-Confounding Variable-A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
-Independent Variable-The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
-Dependent Variable-the outcome factor the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
-Confounding Variable-A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
III. Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life
-Statistics aren’t just for researchers!
-To be an educated person you must understand stats
-Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers
-100 billion nerve cells in the brain (40 billion)
-We only use 10% of our brain (100%)
-10% of people are homosexual (2-3%)
-Statistics aren’t just for researchers!
-To be an educated person you must understand stats
-Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers
-100 billion nerve cells in the brain (40 billion)
-We only use 10% of our brain (100%)
-10% of people are homosexual (2-3%)
A. Describing Data
-Step 1: Gather data
-Step 2: Convert data into a simple representation (bar graph, pie chart, etc.)
-PAY ATTENTION TO THE SCALE OF THE GRAPH!!! YOU WILL SEE WHAT THEY WANT YOU TO SEE
-Step 1: Gather data
-Step 2: Convert data into a simple representation (bar graph, pie chart, etc.)
-PAY ATTENTION TO THE SCALE OF THE GRAPH!!! YOU WILL SEE WHAT THEY WANT YOU TO SEE
i Measures of Central Tendency
-Mean-Average
-Median-Middle score
-Mode-Score that occurs most frequently
-Mean-Average
-Median-Middle score
-Mode-Score that occurs most frequently
ii Measures of Variation
-Determining range-Difference between the lowest and highest score
-Determining standard deviation-How much does each score differ from the mean?
-Determining range-Difference between the lowest and highest score
-Determining standard deviation-How much does each score differ from the mean?
B. Making Inferences
-We can make inferences from data BUT:
-We need to realize that correlation can be just chance
-We need to make sure the data is RELIABLE
-We can make inferences from data BUT:
-We need to realize that correlation can be just chance
-We need to make sure the data is RELIABLE
i When is an Observed Difference Reliable
-Representative samples are better than biased samples
-Less variable observations are more reliable that those that are more variable
-More causes are better than fewer
-Representative samples are better than biased samples
-Less variable observations are more reliable that those that are more variable
-More causes are better than fewer
ii When is a Difference Significant?
-The averages are reliable
-The difference between averages is relatively large
-Does imply the importance of results
-The averages are reliable
-The difference between averages is relatively large
-Does imply the importance of results
IV. Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology
A. Psychology Applied
-Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
-The principles, not the research findings, help explain behavior
-Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
-Culture
-Influence of culture on behavior
-Gender
-More similarities than differences
-Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
-The principles, not the research findings, help explain behavior
-Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
-Culture
-Influence of culture on behavior
-Gender
-More similarities than differences
B. Ethics in Research
-Ethics in animal research
-Reasons for using animals in research
-Safeguards for animal use
-Ethics in human research
-Informed consent
-Protect for harm and discomfort
-Maintain confidentiality
-Ethics in animal research
-Reasons for using animals in research
-Safeguards for animal use
-Ethics in human research
-Informed consent
-Protect for harm and discomfort
-Maintain confidentiality
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