Unit VII Exam

The Unit VII Exam will be on Monday.  That is December 5!  Due that day is:

-VII A Vocabulary
-VII B Vocabulary
-VII A Outline
-VII B Outline
-VII A Review
-VII B Review
-VII A Quizzes
-VII B Quizzes

There will be 75 questions on the exam...  Here are 20 of them

Question 1: The process of getting information out of memory is called...

Question 2: Effortful processing can occur only with...

Question 3: Which term best describes parallel processing?

Question 4: Rephrasing material in your own words is an effective way of facilitating...

Question 5: The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their normal uses is called...

Question 6: Mistakenly concluding that the forgetful acts of an older person must be indicative of Alzheimer's disease best illustrates the impact of...

Question 7: The use of acronyms to improve one's memory of unfamiliar material best illustrates the value of...

Question 8: Semantics refers to the...

Question 9: The tendency to immediately recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items is known as the _____ effect.....

Question 10: A flashbulb memory would typically be stored in _____ memory...

Question 11: Word meaning is to word order as _____ is to _____...

Question 12: Cognitive psychologists are most directly concerned with the study of...

Question 13: The spontaneous utterance of a variety of sounds by infants is called...

Question 14: Mentally segmenting others spoken sounds into individual words best illustrates a 7-month-old's capacity for...

Question 15: B.F. Skinner emphasized the importance of _____ in language acquisition.

Question 16: By shrinking the hippocampus, prolonged stress is most likely to inhibit the process of...

Question 17: Encoding that occurs with no effort or a minimal level of conscious attention is known as...

Question 18: Your consciously activated but limited-capacity memory is called _____ memory.

Question 19: Chomksy suggested that diverse human languages share a...

Question 20: Proactive interference refers to the...



I apologize for misspelled words.  I typed these as fast as possible so that you would have them available to you sooner!

STUDY!!!!!!!!!!!!

Unit VIIB Outline

I. Thinking

-Thinking (AKA Cognition)

-The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

-Cognitive psychology

-The study of the ways in which we created concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and form judgments

A. Concepts

-Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, and people

-Chair

-High chair

-Dentist chair

-Reclining chair

-Lawn chair

-Chairs vary, BUT a chair is still a chair!

-Life without “concepts” would be difficult!

-Categories get divided into hierarchies

-We form concepts by developing prototypes

-Define a bird…

-Which of the following is a bird?

-Which is “birdier”

- “Mixed” Face Study

-People shown a mix of 70% Caucasian and 30% Asian recall seeing a Caucasian

-Would pick a more prototypically Caucasian face out of a lineup

-Same results with a male/female mix

-Is a tomato a fruit or is it a vegetable?

-Is a whale a mammal or a is it a fish?

B. Solving Problems

-Humans are good problem solvers

-How to best escape a crowded situation

-How to deal with a friend’s criticism

-How to get into our own house/car when we have locked ourselves out

i. Strategies

-Algorithm-A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

-Heuristic-A simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments.  Faster, but more error-prone than algorithms

-Sometimes, insight is enough

-A sudden, and often novel realization

ii. Creativity

-The ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable

-Expertise-you must have a good foundation

-Imaginative thinking skills-connect the dots

-A venturesome personality-seek new experiences

-Intrinsic motivation-being driven by interest

-A creative environment-iron on iron

iii. Obstacles to Problem Solving

-Even though we are excellent problem solvers, sometimes the answer will continue to elude us!

-Multiple reasons for “forgetting”

-Multiple reasons for not “encoding”

-Multiple reasons we struggle with problem solving

-Avoid looking for a single cause

C. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments

-How many decisions do you make every day?

-Sometimes, intuition is enough

-We don’t always use a problem solving approach

i. Using and Misusing Heuristics

-Intuitive judgments are instant

-Quick decision making is often bad decision making

-Intelligent people make really dumb mistakes!

a. The Representative Heuristic

-Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

-Short, slim, and likes to read poetry

-Ivy League Scholar or Truck Driver?

-Stereotyping

b. The Availability Heuristic

-Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

-Recency, vividness, or distinctiveness

-Ethnicity and terrorism…

-Casino techniques

ii. Overconfidence

-Combination of bad ingredients!

-Intuitive heuristics

-Eagerness to confirm our own beliefs

-Ability to explain away failures

-Overconfidence in history

-Lyndon B. Johnson and Vietnam

-George W. Bush and Iraq

iii. The Belief and Perseverance Phenomenon

-Belief perseverance-Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

-Consider the opposite

-Be objective and unbiased

iv. The Perils and Powers of Intuition

-Intuition-an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

-BASICALLY-Our “gut” feeling

-Sometimes, we just know

-Intuition is adaptive

v. The Effects of Framing

-10 people will die vs 90 people will live

-Information is the same, but does it seem the same?

-Presentation is EVERYTHING

-Marked down prices

-Always “on sale”

-Opting out vs Opting in (Organ donors)

II. Language

-Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

-“jewel in the crown of cognition”

-Translation process from keyboard to your brain

A. Language Structure

-Creating a language is no small task!

-There are 3 major building blocks

-Phonemes

-Morphemes

-Grammar

-J.R.R. Tolkien

-The Hobbit

-Lord of the Rings

i. Phonemes

-The smallest distinctive sound units

-Surveyed 500 languages

-Found 869 different phonemes

-English uses 40

-Many languages use fewer, many use more

-People who learn one language have difficulty pronouncing phonemes from other languages

ii. Morphemes

-The smallest unit of language that carries meaning

-Morphemes include prefixes and suffixes

-Preview

-Edited

iii. Grammar

-A system of rules that enable us to communicate with and understand others

-Semantics-The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

-Syntax-The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

-white house/ casa blanca

B. Language Development

-Humans learn about 60,000 words between their first birthday and high school graduation

-10 words a day!

-Pulling from a HUGE dictionary (3 words a second)

i. When Do We Learn Language?

-Several milestones in language development

-Receptive Language

-Productive Language

a. Receptive Language

-In fantis- “not speaking”

-By 4 months-can discriminate speech sounds

-Can also read lips

-Infants as young as 7 months can comprehend speech

b. Productive Language

-4 months-babbling stage

-Can produce sounds from ANY language

-10 months-may be able to identify language

-After 1-one-word stage

-18 months-move from learning 1 word a week to 1 word a day

-By 2-two-word stage

-Telegraphic speech

-“TERMS ACCEPTED.  SEND MONEY”

-“want juice”

-“big doggy”

-After the two-word stage full sentences will begin to form

ii. Explaining Language Development

-How do we learn language?

-Nature vs Nurture

-Innate or learned

a. Skinner: Operant Learning

-B.F. Skinner (Behaviorist)

-Association

-Imitation

-Reinforcement

b. Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar

-Noam Chomsky

-“I hate you daddy”

-Language acquisition device

-Universal grammar

-A natural process

-Biology+Experience

c. Statistical Learning and Critical Periods

-Acquiring language at an early age is easier!

-Ability to learn greatly diminishes over time

III. Thinking and Language

-Thinking and language are one!

-This is why we have you write essays in school…

-We will start writing second semester!

A. Language Influences Thinking

-Linguistic determinism-language determines the way we think

-Hopi tribe has no past tense

-How can you think about the past if you can’t talk about it?

B. Thinking in Images

-Mental preparation works!

-We think in pictures!

New Late Work Policy!!!

I will no longer be giving 75% credit for late work.  If you are present the day the work is due and fail to turn it in, you will receive no credit for the assignment.  We are taking another step closer to being a college level class.  Our Unit VII test will be on Monday (Dec. 5).  Items due that day are:

-Unit VII A Vocabulary
-Unit VII A Outline
-Unit VII A Online Quizzes
-Unit VII B Vocabulary
-Unit VII B Outline
-Unit VII B Online Quizzes

Unit VIIA Outline

I. The Phenomenon of Memory

-Memory is learning that persists over time

-Shereshevskii or “S”

-Could repeat up to 70 digits back

II. Information Processing

-Encoding / Storage / Retrieval

-Computer model

–Keyboard, Hard drive, Recovery

-Atkinson and Shiffrin’s three-step model

-Sensory Memory

-Short-Term Memory

-Long-Term Memory

-Processed directly into long-term

-Working memory

A. Encoding: Getting Information In

-What do we encode automatically?

-What do we encode effortfully?

-How does the distribution of practice influence retention?

i. How We Encode

-Some information is processed with great ease

-Route from one class to another

-Your drive home

-A new phone number requires more effort

a. Automatic Processing

-Parallel processing

-Automatic processing

-Space: visualization of location

-Time: retracing your steps

-Frequency: keep track of how many times you experience certain things

-Well-learned information: long term memory

-!tnatropmi si ygolohcysp rof gniydutS

b. Effortful Processing

-Rehearsal

-Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

-Able to learn nonsense “words”

-Spacing effect

-Serial Position Effect

-Primacy and Recency

ii. What We Encode

-Like sorting through email

-Some are deleted as spam

-Some are read and retained

a. Levels of Processing

-Eye-screem

-Ice cream

-I scream

-Context and experience

-Visual encoding-Picture

-Acoustic encoding-Sound

-Semantic encoding-Meaning

b. Visual Encoding

-Mental pictures are easier to encode

-Mnemonic Devices: Planets

c. Organizing Information For Encoding

-Chunking

-Acronyms

B. Storage: Retaining Information

-Memories lie dormant waiting to be reconstructed by a cue

-Three Stage Model

-Sensory/ Short-Term/ Long-Term

i. Sensory Memory

-9 letter experiment

-George Sperling (1960)

-High, Medium, and Low Tone

-Momentary Photographic Memory (Iconic)

-Echoic Memory-The Echo chamber of the mind

ii. Working/Short-Term Memory

-1959-Three consonant group (CHJ)

-Count backward from 100 by threes

-Half recalled the “word” after 3 seconds

-Few recalled the “word” after 12 seconds

-The Magical Number Sever, plus or minus two

-Seven wonders of world

-Seven seas

-Seven deadly sins

-Seven primary colors

-Seven musical scale notes

-Seven days of the week

iii. Long-Term Memory

-Long-Term memory is essentially limitless!

-Rajan Mahadevan

-Given any 10 digits from the first 30,000 of Pi

-Would pick up from there

-Could repeat 50 random digits—backward

-Rajan’s father memorized Shakespeare’s works…all of them

iv. Storing Memories in the Brain

-Memories are stored all throughout the brain

-There is no one “memory center”

-Rat experiment

-Learn maze

-Lesion brain

-Retest memory

a. Synaptic Changes

-Memory trace using the California Sea Slug

-Increased activity in synapses

-Long-Term Potential:
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

-Boosting CREB

-Enhanced CREB production has been linked with increased memory

-Boosting Glutamate

-Neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic activity

b. Stress Hormones and Memory

-The brain receives more “food” in emotional times

-Traumatic events become seared into our memory

-People on meds that block stress hormones

-Flashbulb memories: Accurate?

c. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories

-H.M.-Henry Molaison

-Lost the ability to form new memories

-Did not recognize his long-term researcher (ever)

-Jimmie

-Brain damaged

-No ability to form new memories

c. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories (cont)

-Implicit-nondeclarative (independent of conscious recollection)

-Explicit-declarative (memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”)

-Hippocampus-a neural center that is located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories

-Left vs Right

-Verbal Left Visual Right

-The cerebellum plays an important role in forming and storing implicit memories

-Dr. classically conditioned patient to fear shaking hand

C. Retrieval: Getting Information Out

-Recall-A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier.  Fill in the blank.

-Recognition-A measure of memory in which a person need identify previously learned items.  Multiple choice.

-Relearning-A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

i. Retrieval Cues

-Retrieval cues

-Mnemonic devices

-Priming-Memoryless memory

-The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

ii. Context Effects

-Putting yourself in a similar context increases the odds of recalling the memory

-Déjà vu (already seen)

iii. Moods and Memories

-State-dependent memory

-Drunk hiding money

-Mood-congruent memory-The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

III. Forgetting

-Remembering everything is not always good

-“S” had difficulty summarizing stories after reading them

-Three Sins of Forgetting

-Absent-mindedness-Inattention

-Transience-Storage decay over time

-Blocking-Inaccessibility of stored information

-Three Sins of Distortion

-Misattribution-Putting words in someone’s mouth

-Suggestibility-Leading questions in a trial

-Bias-Belief colored recollections

-One Sin of Intrusion

-Persistence-Unwanted memories

A. Encoding Failure

-Much of what we sense we fail to notice

-Failure to encode information leads to an inability to later recall information

B. Storage Decay

-Over time, our memories fade

-Facts are forgotten

C. Retrieval Failure

-Books in the library

-We don’t have enough information to look it up!

-Forgetting an actor’s name

i. Interference

-Learning new combinations or phone numbers

-Proactive interference-disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

-Retroactive interference-disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

ii. Motivated Forgetting

-Self-serving personal histories

-Repression of memory

-Self-serving personal histories

-Repression of memory

-Self-serving personal histories

-Repression of memory

-Self-serving personal histories

-Repression of memory

IV. Memory Construction

-Paleontologists infer what dinosaurs may have looked like based on their remains

-We infer our past from stored information

-Items we later imagined, expected, saw, and heard

-We “reweave” memories as we recall them

A. Misinformation and Imagination Effects

-Misinformation effect-incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

-Smashed vs Hit

B. Source Amnesia

-Attributing to the wrong source an event which we have experienced, heard about , read about, or imagined

-“Mr. Science”

-4 out of 10 children recalled events that had only happened in the “story” about Mr. Science’s visit

C. Discerning True and False Memories

-Can eyewitness testimony be trusted?

D. Children’s Eyewitness Recall

-Leading questions can “plant” false memories

-MOST preschoolers can be induced to report false events

-Rabbit in the daycare…  78% recall seeing the rabbit

E. Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?

-Sexual abuse happens

-Injustice happens

-Forgetting happens

-Recovered memories are commonplace

-Memories of things that happened before age 3 are unreliable

-Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially unreliable

-Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting

V. Improving Memory

-Study REPEATEDLY

-Space out the material

-Study actively

-Make the material meaningful

-Take text and class notes in your own words

-Apply concepts to your own life

-Activate retrieval cues

-Mentally recreate the situation and mood that you were in while you learned the material

-Use mnemonic devices

-Make up stories that create images

-Chunk information

-Minimize interference

-Study before bed

-Don’t study different stories back to back

-Sleep more

-Test your own knowledge

Alzheimer's Documentary

http://www.pbs.org/theforgetting/watch/index.html

Unit VI Exam Question Preview

Question #1
In Pavlov's experiments, the dog's salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was a(n)

Question #2'
Skinner is to shaping as Bandura is to

Question #3
Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)

Question #4
It's easier to train a pigeon to peck a disk for a food reward than to flap its wings for a food reward.  This illustrates the importance of _______________ in learning.

Question #5
After prolonged exposure to television violence, viewers became more indifferent to violence when later viewing a brawl, whether on TV or in real life.  This finding best illustrates

Question #6
Conditioning is the process of

Question #7
B.F. Skinner's work elaborated what E.L. Thorndike had called

Question #8
The first experimental studies of associative learning were conducted by

Question #9
Long after being bitten by a stray dog, Alonzo found that his fear of dogs seemed to have disappeared.  To his surprise, however, when he was recently confronted by a stray dog, he experienced a sudden twinge of anxiety.  This sudden anxiety best illustrates

Question #10
Because Mr. Baron demonstrates appreciation only for very good classroom answers, his students have stopped participating in class.  Mr. Baron most clearly needs to be informed of the value of

Unit VI Outline

I. How Do We Learn?

-Learning-A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience

-Habituation-An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

-Associative Learning-Learning that certain events occur together.  Two stimuli?

-Response and Consequences?

II. Classical Conditioning

-Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

-Laid the foundation for John B. Watson

-Behaviorism (Objective Science/Studies behavior without reference to mental processes)

-Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning by which all organisms adapt to their environment

A. Pavlov’s Experiments

-Medical degree at 33

-Earned Russia’s first Nobel Prize in 1904 for research on digestion

-Harnessed the dog

-Apparatus for capturing saliva

-Paired neutral events with the delivery of food

-Tone, buzzer, light, touch on the leg, and sight of a circle

-Unconditioned Response-(UR) Food in the mouth

-Unconditioned Stimulus-(US) Salivation

-Conditioned Response-(CR) The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

-Conditioned Stimulus-(CS) Originally irrelevant stimulus that comes to trigger a conditioned response

i. Acquisition

-How much time must lapse between the neutral stimulus and the US?

-NOT MUCH

-Conditioning doesn’t happen when the CS follows the US

-Deer in the forest

-Dogs with their food

-Higher Order Conditioning-Adding a light to the tone… 

ii. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

-Continuous sounding of the tone without paring it with presentation of food resulted in less salivation

-Extinction suppresses the CR but doesn’t eliminate it

iii. Generalization

-Generalization-The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

-Cars, Truck, Motorcycles

iv. Discrimination

-Discrimination-In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

-A guard dog may frighten you while a guide dog may not…

B. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

-Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance of cognitive processes

-Thoughts, perceptions, expectations

-Also underestimated biological constraints on an organisms learning

i. Cognitive Processes

-Animals can learn the predictability of an event…

-Higher order conditioning (Tone and Light with rat)

-Dogs in harness-learned helplessness

ii. Biological Predispositions

-Species are predisposed to learn associations that enhance survival

-Taste aversion

C. Pavlov’s Legacy

-WHY DO WE CARE?!?!?!?!

-Every species tested can be classically conditioned

-Showed how learning could be studied objectively

i. Applications of Classical Conditioning

-John B. Watson and Little Albert

III. Operant Conditioning

-Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning

-Respondent behavior-Automatic responses to stimuli

-Operant behavior-Behaviors followed by rewards increase.  Behaviors followed by punishments decrease.

A. Skinner’s Experiments

-Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect-behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

-Operant chamber (skinner box)

i. Shaping Behavior

-Shaping-A procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

ii. Types of Reinforcers

-Reinforcer-Anything that strengthens the behavior it follows

-Positive Reinforcement-Increases behavior by presenting a positive stimuli

-Negative Reinforcement-Increases behavior by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (NOT PUNISHMENT!)

a. Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers

-Primary Reinforcer-An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

-Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer-A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association

b. Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers

-Rats do not respond to delayed reinforcers, but humans do…  Sometimes…

-A little now or a lot later?

iii. Reinforcement Schedules

-Continuous vs Intermittent

-Fixed-Ratio: Coffee Shop

-Variable-Ratio: Slot Machine

-Fixed-Interval: Checking the Mail at Delivery Time

-Variable-Interval: Checking for Email Randomly

iv. Punishment

-Reinforcement increases a behavior, punishment does the opposite

-Positive Punishment and Negative Punishment

-Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten

-Punishment teaches discrimination

-Punishment can teach fear

-Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression

B. Extending Skinner’s Understanding

i. Cognition and Operant Conditioning

-Skinner died in 1990

-Believed thoughts and emotions were behaviors that are learned

a. Latent Learning

-A rat exploring a maze

-Developed a cognitive map

-Latent learning-only becomes apparent when there is some incentive to demonstrate what was learned

b. Insight Learning

-The light bulb turning on!

-Even after puzzling for a long time, sometimes we are struck with the solution

c. Intrinsic Motivation

-Excessive rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation

-The desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

-Intrinsic vs Extrinsic

ii. Biological Predispositions

-Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive

-Instinctive drift…

C. Skinner’s Legacy

-Insisted that external influences shaped behavior

-Are reinforcers more humane than punishments?

-School?

-At Home?

-In Prisons?

i. Applications of Operant Conditioning

a. At School

-According to Skinner…

-Computers or Robots might make the best teachers

-Allowing students to work at their own pace through the material

-Gives immediate feedback

b. In Sports

-Putting in golf

-Small victories important

-5 yards, 10 yards, 15 yards

-Small incremental increases

c. At Work

-Rewards increase productivity

-Stocks

-IBM-Thomas Watson-Wrote checks on the spot for a job well done

d. At Home

-Notice something right

-Affirmation is key!

-Attention and reinforcers when behaving well, not just punishment

e. For Self-Improvement

-State your goal

-Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior

-Reinforce the desired behavior

-Reduce the rewards gradually

D. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

-Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination…

-Respondent vs Operant

IV. Learning by Observation

-Social learning

-Imitation

-Modeling

-Catch phrases, clothing styles, food, vices, fads

A. Mirrors in the Brain

-Mirror Neurons-Frontal lobe neurons  that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.  This mirroring may enable imitation.

-Theory of Mind-Ability to empathize

B. Bandura’s Experiments

-Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiments

-1^st room

-2^nd room

-3^rd room

C. Applications of Observational Learning

-We look, we learn

-Job training

i. Prosocial Effects

-Ghandi

-MLK Jr.

-“Do as I say, not as I do…”

-Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

ii. Antisocial Effects

-Lessons learned are not easily forgotten

-Violence in film and video games

-Correlation vs Causation

Unit VI Vocabulary List

Don't forget to keep up with your reading!  Your Unit VI vocabulary will be due on test day, which is scheduled for November 2.  Please remember to number your terms as they are numbered here!!!    These terms must be hand written!!!  There are 44 terms, so START NOW!!!

1. Learning
2. Habituation
3. Associative Learning
4. Classical Conditioning
5. Behaviorism
6. Unconditioned Response
7. Unconditioned Stimulus
8. Conditioned Response
9. Conditioned Stimulus
10. Acquisition
11. Higher-Order Conditioning
12. Extinction
13. Spontaneous Recovery
14. Generalization
15. Discrimination
16. Learned Helplessness
17. Respondent Behavior
18. Operant Conditioning
19. Operant Behavior
20. Law of Effect
21. Operant Chamber
22. Shaping
23. Discriminative Stimulus
24. Reinforcer
25. Positive Reinforcement
26. Negative Reinforcement
27. Primary Reinforcer
28. Conditioned Reinforcer
29. Continuous Reinforcement
30. Partial Reinforcement
31. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
32. Variable-Ratio Schedule
33. Fixed-Interval Schedule
34. Variable-Interval Schedule
35. Punishment
36. Cognitive Map
37. Latent Learning
38. Insight
39. Intrinsic Motivation
40. Extrinsic Motivation
41. Observational Learning
42. Modeling
43. Mirror Neurons
44. Prosocial Behavior

Unit IV Exam Question Preview

As promised...

Question #1
As you look at an apple, its reflected light travels to the eye.  The rods and cones absorb the light and help transmit the information to the brain.  This process best illustrates........

Question #2
The process of receiving and representing stimulus energies by the nervous system is called........

Question #3
Patients' negative expectations about the outcome of a surgical procedure can increase their postoperative experience of pain.  This best illustrates the importance of........

Question #4
The effect of prior experience and current expectations on perception best illustrates the importance of........

Question #5
Bottom-up processing involves analysis that begins with the........

Question #6
As the retinal image of a horse galloping toward you becomes larger, it is unlikely that the horse will appear to grow larger.  This best illustrates the phenomenon of........

Question #7
The sequentially flashing Christmas tree lights appeared to generate pulsing waves of motion.  This best illustrates........

Question#8
Imagine your friend walking toward you in the hall at school.  As your friend gets closer, the image cast on your retina........

Question #9
Experiments with the visual cliff suggest that........

Question #10
The perceptual tendency to group together stimuli that are near each other is called........

Online Quizzes Part II

Your online quizzes must be taken by Monday.  As long as they are taken before midnight, they will not be considered late.  The Unit IV Vocabulary is DUE before you take your test, however.

Online Quizzes

http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/myersAP1e/default.asp#t_612492____

Follow the link above in order to register for your online quizzes.  Remember, they are DUE by Monday!!!

Unit IV Outline

I. Sensing the World: Some Basic Principles

-Sensation and Perception are one CONTINUOUS process

-Bottom-up vs Top-down processing

–Bottom-up: Beginning with sense receptors and working up to the brain

–Top-down: Beginning with higher level mental processes and constructing perceptions based on expectations

-Man on Horseback in Forest

-Bev Doolittle

-Let’s take another look…

-The Forest Has Eyes

-Bev Doolittle

-Man on Horse in Forest

-The Forest has Eyes

–Did a title difference change the way you viewed the painting?

-Frog- “bug detector”

-Male Silkworm- sensitivity to female scent

-Human- voice consonants and baby cry

A. Selective Attention

-A flashlight beam on an almost infinite canvas

-11,000,000 bits of information taken in every second

-Humans process about 40 of them

-That leaves 10,999,960 for your unconscious mind to work with

-Cocktail party effect (one voice among many)

i. Selective Attention and Accidents

-Texting and driving?

-Statistics show that even using a GPS greatly increases your risk for having an accident

ii. Selective Inattention

-Inattentional blindness

–While focusing on one task, we may miss some very important “stuff”

-Change blindness

–Most won’t notice a switch

-Change deafness (list of words)

-Pop-out phenomenon

-Some stimuli demand our attention, such as the one smiling face amidst a crowd of crying faces

B. Thresholds

-Visible and Audible spectrums

-Psychophysics-The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli (intensity of stimuli and our psychological experience of them)

i. Absolute Thresholds

-Candle at 30 miles

-Drop of perfume

-Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

-Absolute thresholds vary with age

ii. Signal Detection

-Signal Detection Theory-No absolute threshold

-Depends on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

          -Ability to catch a faint signal diminishes after 30 minutes

iii. Subliminal Stimulation

-Can we sense stimuli below our absolute threshold?

-Priming-negative image flashes vs positive image flashes

-Follow up images and participant response

-MIND OVER MATTER

iv. Difference Thresholds

-Just noticeable difference

-1 lb added to 10 lbs

-1 lb added to 100 lbs

C. Sensory Adaptation

-The smelly room that no longer smells

-After constant exposure, our nerve cells fire less frequently

-T-Rex vision-The ever moving eye

-Fast-paced movies vs slow-paced ones

II. Vision

-The eye receives light energy

-This light is transduced or transformed into a neural message

-Our brain processes what we are actually seeing

A. The Stimulus Input: Light Energy

-We don’t see color, we see light in different frequencies

-Wavelength-Distance from peak to peak on waves

-Hue-Dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

-Intensity-Brightness or loudness

B. The Eye

-Pupil

-Iris

-Lens

-Retina

-No singular image is projected on the back of the eye

-Millions of particles of light energy are transducted and reassembled by the brain

i. The Retina

-Rods-Detect black, white, and gray

-Cones-Detect color and well lighted areas

-Optic Nerve-Blind spot, no receptor cells

C. Visual Information Processing

-Retina’s Neural Layers

-Migrated brain tissue (not just a messenger)

-Encode and analyze

i. Feature Detection

-Much like frogs with “bug detector” cells, humans also have detector cells or centers

ii. Parallel Processing

-Color, Motion, Form, and Depth

-30% of the cortex required for facial recognition

D. Color Vision

-Is a tomato red?

-No.  It is everything BUT red

-It reflects red

-Humans can discriminate between 7,000,000 different colors

-Trichromatic theory (R,G,B)

-Three different types of receptors

-Color deficiency

D. Color Vision (cont)

-Opponent process theory

-Red and Green

-Blue and Yellow

-Black and White

III. Hearing

-Vision in the major sense

-Audition is highly adaptive

-Difference threshold with human voices

A. The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves

-The movement of air molecules

-Air pressure changes perceived as sound

-Low frequency and low pitch

-High frequency and high pitch

B. The Ear

-Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear

-EardrumàThrough the Middle EaràOval Window VibratesàFluid RipplesàHairs VibrateàAuditory NerveàTo the Brain

-A very complex process

-Damage to the hairs in the ear

-Carpet example

i. Perceiving Loudness

-The number of activated hair cells, not from the intensity of the response

ii. Perceiving Pitch

-Combination of 2 theories

-Place Theory-Links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

–Good for high pitches

-Frequency Theory-The rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone

–Volley principle

iii. Locating Sounds

-Stereophonic hearing (3-D)

-Sense of place

-Time lag between sounds reaching each ear

C. Hearing Loss and Deaf Culture

-Conduction Hearing Loss-mechanical damage

-Sensorineural Hearing Loss-damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells (nerve deafness)

-Cochlear Implant

IV. Other Senses

-Seeing and hearing have priority

-Touch

-Body position and movement

-Taste

-Smell

A. Touch

-Types of Touch

–Pressure

–Warmth

–Cold

–Pain

-Kinesthesis

-Vestibular Sense

B. Pain

i. Understanding Pain

-Bottom-up sensations

-Top-down processes

a. Biological Influences

-Not a simple neural cord running to a definable area in the brain

-Noriceptors (pressure, temperature, chemicals)

-Gate-Control Theory-Neurological gate within the spinal column (blocks or allows pain to pass)

-Phantom limbs

-The creation of pain

b. Psychological Influences

-Rubber hand illusion

-Perspiration and pain while bending the fingers

-Hand in cold water (60 seconds and 90 seconds)

-More net pain, but less at the end

c. Social-Cultural Influences

-Pain may be sympathetic

-Biopsychosocial

ii. Controlling Pain

-Physical methods

-Psychological methods

C. Taste

-Sweet, Sour, Salty, and Bitter

-Chemical sense

-Taste buds (200)

-Regenerate after a week or so

-Age and taste

i. Sensory Interaction

-Taste and smell

-A bad cold

-Hard of hearing with CC

-Synaesthesia-hearing sound may cause you to visualize color

-Seeing a number may evoke taste

D. Smell

-Chemical sense

-5 million receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity

-An old sense, bypasses the switchboard (thalamus)

V. Perceptual Organization

-When given a random set of data or sensations we organize them into a Gestalt (“whole” or “form”)

-The whole may exceed the sum of its parts

A. Form Perception

-How do we recognize faces?

-What abilities does this “simple” task require?

i. Figure and Ground

-Distinctiveness from an objects surrounding

-Continually reversing

-More than one perception

ii. Grouping

-Must organize info into meaningful form

-We must “group” stimulus together to extract form

-Proximity-We group nearby figures together

-Similarity-We group similar figures together.

-Continuity-We perceive smooth continuous patterns rather than discontinuous

-Connectedness-We perceive each set of two dots and a line as a single unit

-We fill in the gaps to complete the whole object

B. Depth Perception

-Seeing in 3D helps us judge distance

-Each species displayed depth perception abilities by the time they were mobile

i. Binocular Cues

-Our retinas receive slightly different images

-Comparing images allows us to perceive depth

-Allows filmmakers to produce a 3D effect

ii. Monocular Cues

-Taller than it is wide?

-Equal distance

-Vertical images appear to be taller than horizontal-vertical illusion

-Relative Height-We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away

-Relative Size-If we assume 2 objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away

-Interposition-If one object partially blocks our view of another we perceive it as closer

-Linear Perspective-Parallel lines such as railroad tracks appear to converge in the distance

-Relative Motion-As we move, objects that are stable may appear to move. 

-Light and Shadow-Shading produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above

C. Motion Perception

-Without the ability to perceive motion, life would be very difficult

-Stroboscopic Movement-Animation

-Phi Phenomenon-Lights on marquee signs are not actually moving, but only switching on and off

D. Perceptual Constancy

-Perceiving objects as unchanging

-We can recognize and identify people regardless of distance, angle of view, and illumination