I. The Phenomenon of Memory
-Memory is learning that persists over time
-Shereshevskii or “S”
-Could repeat up to 70 digits back
II. Information Processing
-Encoding / Storage / Retrieval
-Computer model
–Keyboard, Hard drive, Recovery
-Atkinson and Shiffrin’s three-step model
-Sensory Memory
-Short-Term Memory
-Long-Term Memory
-Processed directly into long-term
-Working memory
A. Encoding: Getting Information In
-What do we encode automatically?
-What do we encode effortfully?
-How does the distribution of practice influence retention?
i. How We Encode
-Some information is processed with great ease
-Route from one class to another
-Your drive home
-A new phone number requires more effort
a. Automatic Processing
-Parallel processing
-Automatic processing
-Space: visualization of location
-Time: retracing your steps
-Frequency: keep track of how many times you experience certain things
-Well-learned information: long term memory
-!tnatropmi si ygolohcysp rof gniydutS
b. Effortful Processing
-Rehearsal
-Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
-Able to learn nonsense “words”
-Spacing effect
-Serial Position Effect
-Primacy and Recency
ii. What We Encode
-Like sorting through email
-Some are deleted as spam
-Some are read and retained
a. Levels of Processing
-Eye-screem
-Ice cream
-I scream
-Context and experience
-Visual encoding-Picture
-Acoustic encoding-Sound
-Semantic encoding-Meaning
b. Visual Encoding
-Mental pictures are easier to encode
-Mnemonic Devices: Planets
c. Organizing Information For Encoding
-Chunking
-Acronyms
B. Storage: Retaining Information
-Memories lie dormant waiting to be reconstructed by a cue
-Three Stage Model
-Sensory/ Short-Term/ Long-Term
i. Sensory Memory
-9 letter experiment
-George Sperling (1960)
-High, Medium, and Low Tone
-Momentary Photographic Memory (Iconic)
-Echoic Memory-The Echo chamber of the mind
ii. Working/Short-Term Memory
-1959-Three consonant group (CHJ)
-Count backward from 100 by threes
-Half recalled the “word” after 3 seconds
-Few recalled the “word” after 12 seconds
-The Magical Number Sever, plus or minus two
-Seven wonders of world
-Seven seas
-Seven deadly sins
-Seven primary colors
-Seven musical scale notes
-Seven days of the week
iii. Long-Term Memory
-Long-Term memory is essentially limitless!
-Rajan Mahadevan
-Given any 10 digits from the first 30,000 of Pi
-Would pick up from there
-Could repeat 50 random digits—backward
-Rajan’s father memorized Shakespeare’s works…all of them
iv. Storing Memories in the Brain
-Memories are stored all throughout the brain
-There is no one “memory center”
-Rat experiment
-Learn maze
-Lesion brain
-Retest memory
a. Synaptic Changes
-Memory trace using the California Sea Slug
-Increased activity in synapses
-Long-Term Potential:
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
-Boosting CREB
-Enhanced CREB production has been linked with increased memory
-Boosting Glutamate
-Neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic activity
b. Stress Hormones and Memory
-The brain receives more “food” in emotional times
-Traumatic events become seared into our memory
-People on meds that block stress hormones
-Flashbulb memories: Accurate?
c. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
-H.M.-Henry Molaison
-Lost the ability to form new memories
-Did not recognize his long-term researcher (ever)
-Jimmie
-Brain damaged
-No ability to form new memories
c. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories (cont)
-Implicit-nondeclarative (independent of conscious recollection)
-Explicit-declarative (memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”)
-Hippocampus-a neural center that is located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories
-Left vs Right
-Verbal Left Visual Right
-The cerebellum plays an important role in forming and storing implicit memories
-Dr. classically conditioned patient to fear shaking hand
C. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
-Recall-A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier. Fill in the blank.
-Recognition-A measure of memory in which a person need identify previously learned items. Multiple choice.
-Relearning-A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.
i. Retrieval Cues
-Retrieval cues
-Mnemonic devices
-Priming-Memoryless memory
-The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
ii. Context Effects
-Putting yourself in a similar context increases the odds of recalling the memory
-Déjà vu (already seen)
iii. Moods and Memories
-State-dependent memory
-Drunk hiding money
-Mood-congruent memory-The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
III. Forgetting
-Remembering everything is not always good
-“S” had difficulty summarizing stories after reading them
-Three Sins of Forgetting
-Absent-mindedness-Inattention
-Transience-Storage decay over time
-Blocking-Inaccessibility of stored information
-Three Sins of Distortion
-Misattribution-Putting words in someone’s mouth
-Suggestibility-Leading questions in a trial
-Bias-Belief colored recollections
-One Sin of Intrusion
-Persistence-Unwanted memories
A. Encoding Failure
-Much of what we sense we fail to notice
-Failure to encode information leads to an inability to later recall information
B. Storage Decay
-Over time, our memories fade
-Facts are forgotten
C. Retrieval Failure
-Books in the library
-We don’t have enough information to look it up!
-Forgetting an actor’s name
i. Interference
-Learning new combinations or phone numbers
-Proactive interference-disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
-Retroactive interference-disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
ii. Motivated Forgetting
-Self-serving personal histories
-Repression of memory
-Self-serving personal histories
-Repression of memory
-Self-serving personal histories
-Repression of memory
-Self-serving personal histories
-Repression of memory
IV. Memory Construction
-Paleontologists infer what dinosaurs may have looked like based on their remains
-We infer our past from stored information
-Items we later imagined, expected, saw, and heard
-We “reweave” memories as we recall them
A. Misinformation and Imagination Effects
-Misinformation effect-incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
-Smashed vs Hit
B. Source Amnesia
-Attributing to the wrong source an event which we have experienced, heard about , read about, or imagined
-“Mr. Science”
-4 out of 10 children recalled events that had only happened in the “story” about Mr. Science’s visit
C. Discerning True and False Memories
-Can eyewitness testimony be trusted?
D. Children’s Eyewitness Recall
-Leading questions can “plant” false memories
-MOST preschoolers can be induced to report false events
-Rabbit in the daycare… 78% recall seeing the rabbit
E. Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?
-Sexual abuse happens
-Injustice happens
-Forgetting happens
-Recovered memories are commonplace
-Memories of things that happened before age 3 are unreliable
-Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially unreliable
-Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting
V. Improving Memory
-Study REPEATEDLY
-Space out the material
-Study actively
-Make the material meaningful
-Take text and class notes in your own words
-Apply concepts to your own life
-Activate retrieval cues
-Mentally recreate the situation and mood that you were in while you learned the material
-Use mnemonic devices
-Make up stories that create images
-Chunk information
-Minimize interference
-Study before bed
-Don’t study different stories back to back
-Sleep more
-Test your own knowledge
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